A Review of the Musical Mood Induction Procedure

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Peer-reviewed

Research Commodity

Online validation of combined mood induction procedures

• David Marcusson-Clavertz,
• Oscar Due north. East. Kjell,
• Stefan D. Persson,
• Etzel Cardeña

10

• Published: June 4, 2019
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0217848

Figures

Abstruse

Picture clips, music, and self-referential statements (termed Velten, later their originator) have been successfully used to temporarily induce sadness and happiness. However, there is niggling research on the effectiveness of these procedures combined, particularly in cyberspace-based settings, and whether Velten statements contribute to alter mood beyond the result of simple instructions to close one's eyes and enter the targeted mood. In Study 1 (N = 106) nosotros examined the effectiveness 80 Velten statements (positive, negative, neutral-cocky, neutral-facts) to create brief and constructive sets that might be used in future enquiry. In Written report 2 (N = 445) we examined the upshot size of eight-min combined mood consecration procedures, which presented video clips in the commencement half and music excerpts with Velten statements or closed eyes instructions in the second half. Participants answered questionnaires on social desirability, joviality, and sadness earlier being randomly assigned to 1 of seven groups varying in Valence (positive, negative, neutral) and Velten (closed optics control, self-referential Velten, and, in the case of neutral condition, factual statements). Afterwards, participants completed the joviality and sadness scales a 2d time. Compared to the neutral conditions, the positive mood inductions increased joviality (Hedges Chiliad = 1.35, 95% CI [i.07, 1.63]), whereas the negative mood inductions increased sadness (Hedges Grand = 1.28, 95% CI [1.01, 1.55]). We did not observe any significant difference between Velten and closed eyes instructions in inducing joviality or sadness, nor did nosotros observe any pregnant difference between neutral Velten statements referring to self and facts. Although social desirability bias was associated with reports of greater joviality and lower sadness, it could non account for the effects of the positive and negative mood consecration procedures. Nosotros conclude that these combined mood induction procedures can be used in online research to study happy and sorry mood.

Commendation: Marcusson-Clavertz D, Kjell ONE, Persson SD, Cardeña Eastward (2019) Online validation of combined mood induction procedures. PLoS One 14(vi): e0217848. https://doi.org/x.1371/journal.pone.0217848

Editor: Thomas Grand. Olino, Temple University, UNITED STATES

Received: November 25, 2018; Accepted: May 20, 2019; Published: June 4, 2019

Copyright: © 2019 Marcusson-Clavertz et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original writer and source are credited.

Data Availability: All relevant data are within the manuscript and its Supporting Data files.

Funding: DMC was supported through a research grant from the Swedish Research Council (Vetenskapsrådet; https://www.vr.se/english.html; project number 2016-00337). The funders had no function in study pattern, data collection and assay, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction

People'due south moods vary at different times. For example, almost l% of variance in negative affect in everyday life is due to within-person factors, including variation across moments and days [1]. As daily life variability in bear upon predicts of import wellness-related behaviors (e.one thousand., slumber [2]), it is important to understand temporary fluctuations in impact. A mutual experimental arroyo to study mood is to employ mood induction procedures (MIPs) in which experimental stimuli are administered in a controlled fashion to alter people'southward mood temporarily. Widely used examples of MIPs include presenting affectively-laden video clips, songs, or self-referential statements known as Velten statements [iii]. A meta-analysis indicated that MIPs on average produce almost a ane standard deviation change in mood compared to control procedures studies [iv]. However, there is substantial heterogeneity of effect sizes across studies, and a contempo meta-analysis on cyberspace-based studies failed to find back up for the effectiveness of happiness MIPs administered online [five], which may exist due to the diversity of MIPs. Several reviews have recommended video clips as they induce medium-to-large changes in positive and negative mood [3–5], just a handful of studies take observed large outcome sizes for combined MIPs (east.g., reading Velten statements while listening to music; [iv]). In this paper, we adult and tested combined MIPs administered online comprising video clips followed by music excerpts with Velten statements or airtight eyes instructions.

Velten induction

In 1968, Emmett Velten Jr. examined whether semantic content could influence people'due south mood. He developed cocky-referential sentences and asked participants to try to feel the mood suggested by the sentences, either positive (due east.g., This is swell—-I really practise feel skilful—I am elated well-nigh things) or negative (e.g., I have too many bad things in my life). Participants were then tested on vii outcomes, including self-reported mood, writing speed, decision time, and number of spontaneous verbalizations during the test [6]. As a control condition, he asked participants to read statements intended to be neutral (east.one thousand., Utah is the Beehive State). The results were generally in the expected management with, for case, those receiving the positive mood consecration reporting more positive mood, writing more words per minutes, and producing more spontaneous verbalizations during the test than the other groups (only in that location were no significant differences for a perceptual ambiguity outcome). Since then, self-referential and suggestive of a targeted mood statements (typically chosen Velten statements), take been among the most commonly used and successful techniques to influence mood [7, 8] and been extended to various states like dissociation [9]. I reason for its popularity may be its ease to standardize and administer, which has allowed it to exist successfully combined with music [ten]. The elapsing of the induction can too be hands manipulated by changing the number of statements and their duration. Successful induction has been shown with as few as 12 statements [11].

Critics accept argued that the technique is susceptible to demand characteristics [7] and social desirability biases [12]. Tests of demand characteristics have yielded mixed results [half-dozen, thirteen], and others have argued that demonstrating that individuals tin can simulate a inverse mood when instructed to practice so does not necessarily show that they will pursue such simulations when not asked to [14]. Although previous enquiry has failed to demonstrate a role of social desirability biases in responding to Velten MIPs [xv, 16], these studies have not evaluated a positive mood induction. Another event with Velten MIPs is that positive and negative Velten statements are self-referential, whereas neutral Velten statements are not, thereby conflating valence with cocky-reference. Notwithstanding, activating self-referential thoughts nearly personal relationships and similar themes might increase the tendency to mind wander [17], and as such, Velten statements might influence cognitive outcomes due to self-reference rather than touch. For situations like this, we set out to design neutral statements that are cocky-referential and more comparable with positive and negative statements.

Despite having been the nearly frequently used MIP [iv], previous research has questioned whether Velten MIPs are more than effective than simply simple instructions to enter the target mood. One written report tested four conditions (Velten, Music, Velten + Music, or Instructions merely; xv individuals per condition) to enter anxious and sad moods [eighteen]. All atmospheric condition successfully contradistinct moods, merely the study did not find any significant difference betwixt the conditions. One peradventure mitigating factor for Velten MIPs is that the statements themselves might vary in effectiveness, but they have been rarely independently tested rather than evaluated as a complete battery. One exception, particularly relevant for study i, was a study asking undergraduates to charge per unit each of 84 statements [19]. Jennings and colleagues [xix] tested 25 statements per status (positive, neutral, negative), of which most statements had been used previously [xx]. Participants were asked to try to experience the mood suggested by each of the 84 statements so charge per unit the mood on a nine-bespeak valence scale. After rank-ordering the valence ratings of these statements, the authors examined whether positive statements were placed in the superlative-third, the negative statements in the bottom-third, and the neutral statements in the middle 3rd. They found that simply 52 statements were ranked in the expected third (i.e., 62% of the statements were given ratings congruent with their designated category). This suggests that further refinement of Velten statements is needed to optimize the process before comparing it with other techniques, such as simple instructions to get into the targeted mood.

Report 1

Our aim was to create short Velten forms that could be used to quickly induce temporary changes in happiness and sadness and to develop and evaluate a set of neutral self-referent statements that could be used as a control status. Our goal was to excerpt at least 15 statements with high positive valence ratings, fifteen negative statements with high negative valence, and 15 neutral-self and 15 neutral-facts close to each other and to the midpoint of the bipolar valence scale.

Method

Participants.

Out of the 121 participants that completed the study, 15 were excluded for answering the control questions incorrectly (see Materials). Of the remaining 106, there were 65 females, forty males, and 1 person with a missing response. The average age was 35.44 years old (SD = 11.17). Participants completed the survey using laptops (n = 53), desktop computers (n = 36), smartphones (n = eleven), or tablet computers (n = 6).

Materials

Nosotros included 80 Velten statements. divided into four every bit large categories (positive, negative, neutral-facts, neutral-cocky). Participants were asked to: one) read each argument advisedly and, if applicable, try to experience it as though information technology were happening to them; and 2) rate how they felt while reading the statement. The calibration ranged from 1 (very unhappy) to 9 (very happy) and was coupled with 9 Self-Assessment Manikin (SAM) figures. We derived the items from two sources [19, 21] (hereafter referred to as the Jennings et al. and Lessard studies), except for the neutral-cocky statements, which nosotros developed ourselves (run across Table 1).

We included xx positive statements, xviii of which were derived from the Jennings et al. study [19] and 2 from Lessard [21] (e.g., If I set my mind to it, I can make things turn out fine). We excluded iv items from the Jennings et al. study based on negative feedback nosotros received during piloting (My futurity is so brilliant I've got to clothing shades; I experience completely aware; Zero can bum me out at present; When it comes right down to it, I'yard but too cool).

We included twenty negative statements of which 17 were derived from the Jennings et al. study [19] and 3 were revised statements from Lessard [21] (east.one thousand., I've doubted that I'm a worthwhile person). We excluded four items used in the Jennings et al. study considering they referred negatively to "trying" (which might induce demand characteristics not to brand an effort on subsequent tasks; I'm tired of trying; What'south the point of trying?) or nosotros deemed them too despairing (I'm completely alone; There is no hope).

We included twenty Neutral facts from the Jennings et al. [19] report. Three of these were edited from referring to episodes (Elephants carried the supplies; The carpeting was made according to an quondam Navajo pattern; Mules hauled the supplies up the mountain) to factual statements (Elephants are big mammals; Typical Navajo textiles have geometric patterns; Mules can carry goods on their back).

We developed a set of 20 items intended to be self-referential and induce a neutral mood characterized by depression sadness and low happiness so that they could be compared to positive and negative MIPs without confounding valence and self-reference. Our purpose was to identify at to the lowest degree 15 satisfactory items that could be used in future MIP inquiry. As a pilot, we assessed a preliminary set up of 25 neutral-self items (together with 25 positive and 25 negative items from the Jennings et al. and Lessard studies [19, 21]) past request a console of four psychologists to evaluate particular clarity and effectiveness of inducing the intended mood and suggest improvements. Nosotros then revised the items and selected 20 items per set and tested them in Study 1 (for the novel neutral-self statements, run across Table 1).

We included two intermittent control items among the Velten statements. Participants were asked to "Select alternative 3 hither" for control detail 1 and "Select alternative seven here" for command detail two. This approach has been shown to increase reliability [22].

Procedure.

Volunteers at Academic Prolific were invited to rate the emotional valence of 80 statements. The statements were presented in random order in 10 pages; with two intermittent command items (item 1 at the starting time page and detail ii at the seventh page). At the end, participants indicated their gender, age, and what device they were using to complete the written report, before they were compensated with £i.25 each. This enquiry was approved by our regional ethics lath (Regionala Etikprövningsnämnden, Lund, Sweden).

Results and discussion

Participants' ratings of each neutral-self argument are summarized in Table 1 (Ratings of statements from the other categories can be obtained by request to the corresponding author). Like Jennings et al. [nineteen], we first examined the congruency of our a priori categorization with participants' valence ratings, by counting the number of statements from the positive category that ranked amid the summit 25%, negative statements in the lesser 25%, and neutral statements in between, respectively. There were eighteen (out of 20) statements from the positive category that were ranked in the acme quarter in valence, whereas all xx statements from the negative category ranked in the bottom quarter as expected. From top-to-bottom-quarters, the two neutral categories were ranked in the post-obit mode: 1 neutral-self and i neutral-facts statements were ranked in the top quarter; 7 neutral-self and 11 neutral-facts in the second quarter; 12 neutral-self and 8 neutral-facts in the third quarter; and 0 of each in the bottom quarter. Thus, except for 2 positive, one neutral-cocky, and one neutral-fact, the statements were ranked in the expected quarters.

As for the average ratings, the mean valence was 6.84 (SD = 1.thirty) for the positive statements, 5.74 (SD = ane.27) for the neutral-facts, 5.41 (SD = 1.26) for the neutral-cocky, and 3.fifteen (SD = ane.53) for the negative statements. Compared to the valence ratings of the neutral-facts statements, at that place was a large increase for the ratings of positive statements, t(103) = 6.22, p < .001, Hedges G_av = 0.85, a very large decrease for the negative, t(102) = -16.44, p < .001, Hedges Thousand_av = -1.83, and a pocket-size subtract for the neutral-self statements, t(103) = -2.xviii, p = .032, Hedges G_av = -0.26. That is, although neutral-cocky statements were rated to a higher place the midpoint (5) of the calibration, these scores were weakly, merely significantly, lower than those for the neutral facts statements. To conclude, the ratings were largely congruent with the designated categories and the differences between the valence categories were large. We therefore decided to use the more effective items for the MIPs in Study two.

Study 2

As internet-based MIPs have been inconsistent in inducing the targeted moods [five], whereas laboratory-based MIPs that combine diverse induction techniques have yielded large effect sizes [4], we aimed to test combined MIPs online. In addition to seeking MIPs that could yield relatively large furnishings online, Study two tested whether Velten or closed eyes instructions were more effective when being presented with music following a video clip. Nosotros selected sixty Velten statements based on the ratings in Written report 1. We reasoned that by selecting constructive Velten statements based on Study 1 ratings, it would be informative to follow up on previous research [18], which did not find whatever significant difference between Velten and elementary instructions to become into the targeted mood. We expected that positive MIPs would increase happiness and negative ones would increase sadness, but did non look any changes in happiness or sadness from the Neutral MIPs or whatever differences between Velten and airtight eyes. We pre-registered the report at aspredicted.org (https://aspredicted.org/dc7id.pdf).

Method

Participants.

Out of the 699 individuals that opened the online survey, 500 completed the study. Of those 500 individuals, 51 failed to correctly answer all command items (this was mainly due to 35 participants having missing responses on the first control item) and were excluded as pre-registered. An additional iv participants were identified as multivariate outliers (Mahalanobis distances, p < .001) and excluded so that the concluding North includes 445 individuals. Of them, there were 224 females, 220 males, and 1 person with a missing response. The average age was 35.94 years old (SD = 12.25). Participants completed the survey using desktop computer (n = 152), laptop (n = 287), tablet computer (n = 5), or smart phone (north = ane).

To measure attrition equally a function of induction, nosotros measured how many individuals started the induction for each grouping and compared these numbers with the last sample sizes after excluding those who failed any control item or were identified as outliers. The final sample included 86% out of those who started the Positive Closed optics induction, 89% for Positive Velten, 89% for Negative Airtight optics, 84% for Negative Velten, 84% for Neutral Closed eyes, 86% for Neutral Velten-Self, and 81% for Neutral Velten-Facts. We did not detect a significant deviation in attrition rate across the 7 groups, χ(6) = iii.26, p = .776.

Materials.

We used ii subscales from the self-study measure out Positive and Negative Touch Schedule–Expanded (PANAS-X; [23]). The PANAS-X is an expanded course of the xx-item PANAS [24]. Equally positive and negative affect comprise distinct, but related, subcomponents such as fear, hostility, and guilt [24, 25], nosotros selected the two scales we expected the MIPs would modify the nearly (joviality, sadness). The Joviality scale includes viii items (happy, blithesome, delighted, cheerful, excited, enthusiastic, lively, energetic), whereas the Sadness scale includes five items (distressing, blue, downhearted, alone, lonely). Across eleven samples, the median reliability gauge (Cronbach's α) was .93 for Joviality and .87 for Sadness ([23].

The instructions prompted participants to "Please answer honestly how you experience correct at present." For each detail, participants were asked to rate how they felt using a Likert scale with the following labels: 0 (very slightly or not at all), 1 (a piddling), 2 (moderately), 3 (quite a chip), 4 (extremely). The mean score of Joviality was used to index positive mood and the hateful score of Sadness was used to alphabetize negative mood.

The Patient Health Questionnaire-ii (PHQ-2) screening form measures depressed mood over the past 2 weeks [26]. It includes two items (Little interest or pleasure in doing things; Feeling down, depressed or hopeless) answered on a calibration including 0 (Not at all), i (Several days), 2 (More than half the days) and three (Virtually every day). Those who answered 0 or 1 on both items passed screening criteria.

The revised Social Desirability Calibration (SDS) , which excludes an item on drug use, consists of 16 items and has shown good psychometric properties in previous studies [27], including a Cronbach's alpha of .eighty and a convergence correlation of r = .69 with the Marlowe-Crowne scale, some other scale measuring social desirability [28]. In further support of its validity, the SDS is sensitive to instructions presumed to increase need characteristics (i.e., imagining applying for a job; [27]). Participants are instructed to read each statement carefully and decide if that statement describes them or not by answering "True" or "Imitation." At that place are 6 items in which the socially desirable response is designated to exist "true" (due east.one thousand., "I e'er swallow a healthy diet") and ten items in which the socially desirable response is "false" (eastward.thousand., "I occasionally speak badly of others behind their back."). Socially desirable responses are coded equally 1, and we used the mean score on the SDS in the analyses to include participants with missing responses.

All MIP weather were 8 min long and consisted of a 4 min video clip that included dialogues and music, followed past a 4 min extract of instrumental music. The music was accompanied by instructions to either keep the eyes closed (closed optics status) or reading Velten statements, in which the statements were either self-referential (due east.g., "I feel worthless") or referred to facts (eastward.chiliad., "New York City is in New York land").

The positive MIP begins with instructions to become into a happy mood, followed by a iv min video prune showing a musical piece called Hakuna Matata from the animated movement picture the King of beasts Rex [29]. The clip begins with characters Timon and Pumba explaining to Simba the concept of "Hakuna Matata," which means "No worries." Then they sing the vocal for Simba who later joins in. In addition to the singing, the clip includes some comedic scenes in which Timon and Pumba teach Simba how to eat similar they exercise. The clip ends when the song fades out as the three of them are walking towards the horizon. A Hakuna Matata clip has previously been used successfully to induce happiness [30].

Afterwards the video prune, participants were asked to listen to the first iv min of the instrumental piece "Coppélia, Act I: ane. Prélude et Mazurka," composed by Léo Delibes. This music is frequently used in MIP studies to induce positive touch on[31]. For instance, it has been successfully used to increment happy mood compared to neutral music [32]. The music was accompanied by either closed eyes instructions or Velten statement. We selected the 15 Velten statements with the highest positive valence from Report 1.

The neutral MIP begins with instructions to become into a neutral mood, followed by a four min clip well-nigh Magnets edited from the documentary program Modern Marvels, season 8 episode 35 [33]. We chose this clip because documentary materials have been previously used to induce neutral moods, although they may increase boredom [34]. Given the popularity of Mod Marvels and its fast editing, nosotros causeless that it would induce lower levels of boredom than previously used documentary clips. The 4 min clip comprises four parts of the episode. It begins with the vignette in which the concept of Magnets and some of its applications are introduced (40s). It cuts to a visual demonstration of a hand holding a magnet to a higher place various objects, showing that information technology attracts some items and repels others, while magnets are defined (14s). It then cuts to a visual demonstration of a magnetic field in which a scientist puts a piece of newspaper to a higher place a magnet, and so pours iron powder over the paper to show how they circulate around the magnet (50s). Information technology and then cuts to an animation in which electrons circulate around an cantlet to form a magnetic field (50s). It finally cuts to a description of the discovery of the lodestone, a naturally magnetized piece of magnetite, briefly discussed by author James D. Livingstone followed by a demonstration of an early application of magnets, the compass (i min 27s).

Later on the video clip, participants were asked to listen to the kickoff iv min of the instrumental piece "Variations for Winds, Strings and Keyboards" by Steve Reich. In a report request 27 participants to rate various compositions on a valence calibration, 24 out of 27 rated this piece as neutral by giving it a middle point score of 5 on a 10-point mood scale [35]. The music was accompanied by either closed eyes instructions or Velten statements. To minimize the differences betwixt self-referential and factual Velten statements, we selected the 15 Velten-cocky statements with the highest positive valence (see Table i) and the 15 Velten-facts statements with the lowest valence.

The negative MIP begins with instructions to get into a sad mood, followed by a 4 min prune showing the expiry of Mufasa from the blithe drawing the King of beasts Rex [29]. It begins with a ruby-billed hornbill, Zazu, flying above a wildebeest stampede to observe a lion cub, Simba, in danger. Zazu alerts Simba'southward father, Mufasa, who saves Simba. While saving Simba, Mufasa is drawn back into the stampede and struggles to go dorsum up, calling his brother Scar for help. Scar instead pierces Mufasa's palms, which leads to Mufasa falling dorsum to the stampede. Soon afterwards, Simba finds his father expressionless. Simba tries to wake his father up without success, calls for help but no one answers, and then starts to cry. He finally curls himself under his begetter's arms. This film scene has been successfully used to induce sadness [36].

Afterward the video clip, participants are asked to heed to the first 4 min of the piece "Adagio for Strings, Op. 11" by Samuel Barber. This music has been successfully implemented to induce sadness [37]. The music was accompanied by either closed eyes instructions or Velten statements. We selected the 15 Velten statements with the highest negative valence from Written report 1.

Process.

Participants who passed the PHQ-2 screening criteria could find the study on the Academic Prolific platform. Later on giving informed consent, participants were asked to consummate the SDS, followed by the two PANAS-Ten subscales with the items presented in random order. Participants were randomized into 7 MIP groups that included four min video clips followed by 4 min song clips with either Velten or closed eyes instructions. (i.e., Positive Velten, Positive Closed optics, Negative Velten, Negative Closed eyes, Neutral Velten-Cocky, Neutral Velten-facts, Neutral Closed eyes). To mitigate the chance of demand characteristics, we provided the post-obit instructions for all conditions:

Practice not worry if you do not immediately feel the mood. Information technology might take a while. We are trying different procedures and the same procedure will not arrange everyone. Even so, this process has worked well on a lot of people. Please just endeavour your best and answer honestly when we ask about your mood!

After the viii min MIP, participants completed the two PANAS-10 subscales with the items presented in random club again. Next, they answered some demographic questions, before completing a trait-like questionnaire on mind wandering tendencies (for exploratory purposes, not reported in this paper). Participants were then compensated, and those receiving the neutral or negative MIPs received a positive MIP to increase the likelihood that participants completed the written report in a positive mood. This inquiry was approved by a Swedish regional ethics board.

Analyses

We computed consequence sizes for pre vs. post differences using the Excel spreadsheet created past Lakens [38]. Specifically, we computed Hedges Yard_av and mutual language effect sizes. All other analyses were performed using SPSS version xx. For analyzing the effects of inductions across diverse groups, we performed repeated measures analyses of covariance (RM ANCOVAs) using the SDS as a covariate (as pre-registered). The Box'southward M test of Homogeneity of the variance-covariance matrices was significant (p ≤ .001), merely the sample sizes were relatively similar beyond the groups (the largest and smallest samples differed by a ratio of 1.65:1) then nosotros study the raw results without corrections. If annihilation, the tests are conservative when there are larger variances in larger groups [39]. As there were potential univariate outliers in some analyses, we report the raw results with univariate outliers included but also note whether dropping them impacted the results notably. Our α was ready to .05. The figures were created with R [xl].

Results

Summary of research measures.

Skewness and kurtosis for the dissimilar scales were below 1.25. The PANAS measurements (pre, post) showed practiced reliability with Cronbach's α of at least .87, whereas the Social desirability scale showed acceptable reliability (α = .70). Critically, the PANAS difference scores (measuring change in mood from pre to post-induction) showed loftier reliability beyond individuals (α = .92 for Joviality and α = .87 for Sadness). Social desirability was associated with Joviality pretest scores, r(443) = .29, p < .001, Joviality posttest scores, r(443) = .20, p < .001, and Sadness pretest scores, r(443) = -.14, p = .004. In that location was no significant association between Social desirability and Sadness posttest scores, r(443) = - .06, p = .172. These results signal that individuals with greater trend to study socially desirable behaviors also reported more than positive mood states, at least prior to the induction.

Pre-induction.

We first examined whether there was any departure across the 7 groups prior to the induction. Table 2 shows the ways across atmospheric condition pre and mail service-induction. The one-way ANOVAs did not yield any significant baseline difference between the seven groups in Joviality, F(half-dozen,438) = 0.42, p = .864, η_p ^two = .01, or Sadness, F(6,438) = 0.lxx, p = .652, η_p ^two = .01. Across all groups, participants rated their Joviality (M = ane.52, SD = 0.86) as significantly higher than their Sadness (M = 0.80, SD = 0.87, t[444] = ten.75, p < .001) prior to induction. Equally there were no significant differences prior to induction, we next analyzed the valence conditions (positive, negative, neutral) separately to accost the 3 primary inquiry questions and so analyzed them all together (except for the neutral Velten-facts group) to examine interactions between Velten-self and Valence conditions.

Do the positive mood inductions increase joviality?

The RM ANCOVA with the two positive Groups (Velten vs. Closed Optics) as between subjects factor, Consecration (pre vs. post) equally within-subjects factor, and Social desirability as a covariate indicated a clear main consequence of the Consecration, F(1,128) = 17.90, p < .001, η_p ² = .12, equally expected (see Fig 1). The common language issue size indicates that the likelihood that a person rates college joviality after the positive inductions than prior to it is 88%, and the effect size was between medium and large (Hedges M_av = 0.68, 95% CI [0.56, 0.82]). There was no significant interaction betwixt Induction and Grouping, F(i,128) = 0.91 p = .343, η_p ⁱⁱ = .01 or betwixt Induction and Social desirability, F(1,128) = 0.00, p = .988, η_p ² = .00. There was a between subjects effects of Social desirability on Joviality, F(i,128) = 17.68, p < .001, η_p ^two = .12, indicating that individuals with greater social desirability bias generally reported college joviality. In sum, both positive MIPs successfully induced greater joviality, and although social desirability bias predicted college joviality generally it did non interact with the positive MIPs.

Fig 1. Illustration of joviality change scores across mood induction procedures.

A raincloud plot showing the distributions of alter scores in Joviality from pre to postal service-induction grouped by induction condition. The small dots below each raincloud testify the observed scores of that status (jittered). The lower and upper hinge on the boxplots represent the outset and third quartile with the median in between, whereas the whisker lines extend to the most extreme values but no further than 1.five × the interquartile range from the hinge. The raincloud shapes illustrate the distribution of observations based on Kernel density probability functions computed for each condition (scaled to take equal heights across conditions). To highlight "no change" from pre- to postal service consecration, 0 is indicated with a vertical line.

https://doi.org/10.1371/periodical.pone.0217848.g001

Do the negative mood inductions increase sadness?

The RM ANCOVA with the ii negative Groups (Velten vs. closed eyes) as between-subjects factor, Induction (pre vs. mail service) as within-subjects factor, and Social desirability as a covariate indicated a principal effect of the Consecration, F(one,139) = 5.54, p = .020, η_p ² = .04, as expected. The common language effect size indicates the likelihood that a person rates higher Sadness after the negative induction than prior to it is 83%, and the effect size was large (Hedges G_av = 0.98, 95% CI [0.78, 1.19]). The interaction between Consecration and Group was not significant, F(1,139) = 3.89 p = .050, η_p ² = .03. In that location was no significant interaction between Induction and Social desirability, F(1,139) = 3.20 p = .076, η_p ⁱⁱ = .02, and no primary upshot of Social desirability on Sadness, F(ane,139) = one.xx p = .275, η_p ^two = .01. These conclusions did not change if we dropped any of the three potential outliers who had reduced sadness after the negative Velten consecration (i.e., sadness alter scores of -1 or lower; see Fig 2).

Fig ii. Illustration of sadness modify scores across mood induction procedures.

A raincloud plot showing the distributions of alter scores in Sadness from pre to post-induction grouped past induction condition. The small dots below each raincloud bear witness the observed scores of that status (jittered). The lower and upper swivel on the boxplots stand for the first and tertiary quartile with the median in between, whereas the whisker lines extend to the about farthermost values simply no further than ane.five × the interquartile range from the hinge. The raincloud shapes illustrate the distribution of observations based on Kernel density probability functions computed for each condition (scaled to have equal heights across conditions). To highlight "no alter" from pre- to post induction, 0 is indicated with a vertical line.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0217848.g002

Do the neutral mood inductions change joviality or sadness?

2 RM ANCOVAs were performed with the three neutral Groups (closed eyes vs. Velten-Self vs. Velten-facts) every bit betwixt-subjects factor, Induction (pre vs. post) as inside-subjects factor, Social desirability equally covariate, and Joviality and Sadness, respectively, as the DVs. Regarding Joviality, there was no pregnant primary effect of Induction, F(1,168) = 0.09, p = .761, η_p ^two = .00, and no significant interaction between Consecration and Grouping, F(ii,168) = 0.47, p = .623, η_p ² = .01, or Consecration and Social desirability, F(1,168) = 3.18, p = .076, η_p ⁱⁱ = .02. There was a primary outcome of Social desirability on Joviality, F(1,168) = five.29, p = .023, η_p ² = .03, indicating that individuals with greater bias reported greater joviality generally. Information technology is noteworthy that when Social desirability is dropped from the model the main effect of Induction is pregnant, F(1,169) = xvi.24, p < .001, η_p ² = .09 (Hedges Yard_av = 0.27, 95% CI [0.xiii, 0.41]). That is, we could find significant reductions in joviality after neutral inductions just when social desirability was unaccounted for.

With respect to Sadness, in that location was a significant main effect of Induction, F(1,168) = v.27, p = .023, η_p ² = .03, contrary to our expectations. The mutual language upshot size indicated that the likelihood that a person report reduced sadness after the neutral consecration than prior to it is 58%, and the event size was very small-scale (Hedges Thou_av = 0.15, 95% CI [0.05, 0.26]). There was no meaning interaction betwixt Induction and Group, F(2,168) = ane.94, p = .146, η_p ² = .02, or between Social desirability and Consecration, F(1,168) = 2.37, p = .126, η_p ² = .01. To sum upwardly, the neutral MIPs weakly reduced sadness.

Analyzing Velten and valence interaction effects.

The last prepare of analyses tested interactions between Velten and valence. These analyses excluded the neutral Velten-facts grouping as there were no positive or negative facts groups of this kind. Thus, we performed a RM ANCOVA with Velten (Velten-self vs. Closed eyes) and Valence (Positive vs. Neutral vs. Negative) as the between-subjects factors, Induction (Pre vs. Mail) as within-subjects factor, Social desirability as the covariate, and Joviality and Sadness as the DVs, respectively.

Regarding Joviality, in that location was no three-manner interaction between Induction, Valence, and Velten, F(two,379) = 0.17, p = .841, η_p ^two = .00, and no two-way interaction betwixt Induction and Velten, F(1, 379) = 0.99, p = .319, η_p ⁱⁱ = .00. In that location was a large two-way interaction between Consecration and Valence, F(two, 379) = 184.25, p < .001, η_p ² = .49. We followed this consequence upwards by analyzing difference scores in Joviality past valence condition. Joviality difference scores were greater in those completing the positive inductions (M = 0.62, SD = 0.54) than those in the neutral conditions (K = -0.25, SD = 0.75), with a large effect size, t(242) = 10.51, p < .001, Hedges Grand _av = i.35, 95% CI [1.07, 1.63]. The common language issue size indicates an 83% chance that for a randomly selected pair of individuals the Joviality deviation score of a person completing the positive induction will exist higher than the score of a person completing the neutral status. The Negative condition yielded negative difference scores in Joviality (1000 = -0.94, SD = 0.72), which was significantly more than negative than the neutral condition, t(253) = seven.40, Hedges G _av = 0.93, 95% CI [0.67, 1.19], p < .001), with a 79% likelihood that a randomly selected person from the negative induction will accept a larger drib in Joviality compared to a person from the neutral status. In sum, compared to the neutral atmospheric condition, the positive and negative conditions induced large changes in joviality in the expected directions.

As for Sadness, in that location was no three-way interaction between Induction, Valence, and Velten, F(2,379) = i.28, p = .279, η_p ² = .01, but in that location was a two-way interaction between Consecration and Velten, F(1, 379) = 5.74, p = .017, η_p ² = .01. Follow up analyses indicated that there was a greater increase in Sadness in the Closed Eyes weather (M = 0.27, SD = 0.94) than the Velten conditions (M = 0.05, SD = 0.91), with a 57% likelihood that for a randomly selected pair of individuals, the private completing the Closed Eyes would have greater increment in Sadness than the 1 completing Velten, t(384) = 2.34, p < .020, Hedges G _av = 0.24, 95% CI [0.04, 0.44]. There was also a 2-fashion interaction betwixt Induction and Valence on Sadness, F(2, 379) = 121.84, p < .001, η_p ^two = .39. The negative status increased Sadness (M = 0.90, SD = 0.93) more than the neutral status (M = -0.13, SD = 0.60), t(253) = 10.18, p < .001, Hedges 1000 _av = ane.28, 95% CI [1.01, 1.55], whereas the neutral had a smaller drib in Sadness than the positive (Thousand = -0.xl, SD = 0.57), t(242) = three.63, p < .001, Hedges G _av = 0.47, 95% CI [0.21, 0.72]). In that location was too a ii-way interaction between Social desirability and Induction on Sadness, F(1, 379) = v.05, p = .025, η_p ² = .01. Pearson correlations for pre and post, respectively indicated a weak, negative association between Social desirability and Sadness prior to induction, r(384) = -.14, p = .004, but no pregnant clan after the induction, r(384) = -.08, p = .101. To conclude, sadness was mostly higher in airtight eyes weather condition than Velten conditions, and social desirability was associated with sadness prior to induction, but these furnishings were very small. Large increases in Sadness were observed when comparing negative to neutral induction procedures, whereas positive inductions moderately reduced sadness compared to neutral inductions.

Finally, in an exploratory post-hoc analysis, we examined whether the device used when completing the report was related to the effectiveness of the induction methods, but nosotros did not find prove for whatsoever device effect. Specifically, nosotros performed a RM ANCOVA with Device (Desktop vs. Laptop) and Valence (Positive vs. Neutral vs. Negative) every bit the between-subjects factors, Consecration (Pre vs. Post) equally within-subjects gene, Social desirability as the covariate, and Joviality and Sadness as the DVs, respectively. There was no meaning main effect of Device nor interactions between Device and Valence or Consecration on Joviality or Sadness, ps > .05. The effectiveness of the inductions did non significantly depend on whether participants used desktop or laptop device.

General discussion

These studies update the Velten literature by adding neutral self-referential Velten statements and providing valence ratings of eighty individual statements, which can exist used for quick, standardized mood inductions. As we ranked the valence ratings of each Velten statement, only four statements obtained incongruent ratings. Based on the results of Report one, nosotros adult sets of fifteen statements per status: positive, negative, neutral-self, and neutral-facts. Study ii integrated these sets together with standard video and song clips to form combined online MIPs of eight min that could induce relatively large effects in internet-based settings. Compared to neutral weather, positive MIPs successfully induced large increases in joviality (and medium-sized decreases in Sadness). Likewise, compared to neutral conditions, the negative MIPs successfully induced large increases in Sadness (and large decreases in Joviality). These effect sizes compare favorably to those observed in a previous meta-analysis on internet-based MIPs (Ferrer et al., 2015), suggesting that these procedures can be useful for hereafter online research on mood. In that location was no support for an advantage of Velten statements over airtight eyes instructions when combined with music (and following a video clip), despite confirming the effectiveness of each Velten statement in Study 1 and selecting the most effective ones for Study 2.

The neutral MIPs weakly reduced Sadness and Joviality, but with Social desirability bias statistically controlled for, only the outcome on sadness remained. Although we did not look that these stimuli would modify joviality and sadness, the reduced mood is arguably consequent with the notion of a neutral mood as a minimal affective state. Gasper defined neutral state in v means: minimal affective, in-the-middle, deactivated, typical, or indifferent [41]. It is possible that our stimuli tap related but distinct neutral states. For case, some of our Velten statements might induce a minimal affective land with low levels of both happiness and sadness (e.g., Some days are neither expert nor bad), a state of indifference (e.1000., Everyone seems to be going well-nigh their everyday routine just like me), in-the-middle state (e.yard., If I call up about it, things tend to fifty-fifty out for me), or typical state (e.g., Today is but an ordinary day). Time to come inquiry could aggrandize on these stimuli and explore whether these are distinct neutral states.

A few limitations of these studies demand to be acknowledged. First, they relied on self-reported experiences. Although MIPs have shown furnishings on behavior, cognition, feel, judgment, and physiology [8], the furnishings observed in this study might partly be due to report biases. We tried to mitigate this risk past being transparent about our testing of different procedures and asking for honest self-reports. The fact that participants in internet-based research take no personal encounters with an experimenter might also reduce demand characteristics. Furthermore, the mood effects were large despite statistically controlling for individual differences in social desirability, which has been shown to be sensitive to demand characteristics manipulations [27]. Second, we measured mood immediately after the induction and can therefore not brand whatsoever claims most the duration of the furnishings. It is possible that Velten and closed eyes inductions show divergent mood trajectories over time. Third, we constrained our bear upon measures to happiness and sadness. It is possible that the MIPs induce changes in other detached emotions (e.g., surprise, confusion, serenity). Fourth, nosotros estimated the effect size of combined MIPs every bit a step towards obtaining reliable, large mood effects online, but did not evaluate which component contributed the most or what elapsing is optimal. Nosotros causeless that combining video and music together with Velten or airtight optics instructions would be more effective than using them separately (e.g., drawing videos might ease the viewer into a targeted mood, making them more than susceptible to the suggestive Velten or closed eyes instructions to get deeper into the targeted mood—similar to how becoming absorbed in appealing stimuli might increase the effectiveness of hypnotic suggestions [42]). However, nosotros cannot evaluate which components were constructive, whether there were additive or interactive furnishings, or whether shorter MIPs would yield similar effect sizes. Addressing those questions was beyond the scope of this paper, simply it would exist informative to develop MIPs that are more time effective and involve fewer possibly confounding factors. A possible strength with combined MIPs is that limitations due to specific components of the inductions can be mitigated by the other components and that they might therefore exist effective on a broader population.

To sum up, we developed 8 min induction procedures that can be used in online research to induce large changes in happiness and sadness compared to a neutral induction. Although there were weak-to-medium associations betwixt mood and social desirability bias, the latter could not account for the big furnishings of the positive and negative induction procedures.

Supporting information

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